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This deliverable presents the results of the bio-economic modelling assessments carried out under tasks 2.3 and 2.4. Task 2.3 covered the choice and initial parametrisation of relevant bio-economic models for the included case studies, and formulation of scenarios to be analysed. Models were chosen on the basis that they were already operational (i.e. had been used in other applications previously to Discardless) and as such thoroughly tested and documented in peer-reviewed journals, to secure a high scientific standard of the models and the expected assessment results. The selected scenarios firstly included, for all considered case studies, two benchmark scenarios; (i) ‘Business as usual‘, i.e. how the economic outcome of the fishery would evolve if the Landing Obligation (LO) was not implemented, and (ii) ‘Full implementation‘, i.e. what the predicted economic consequences for the fishery will be given a full implementation of the LO with no exemptions or mitigation measures implemented. Secondly a number of relevant scenarios were defined for each case study based on either expectations on or direct knowledge about how the LO, and possible exemptions and mitigation strategies will be implemented in the specific case study. And finally, each case study has assessed and applied outputs from Work Packages (WPs) 3-7, to the extend possible given the bio-economic model in use. Task 2.4 has firstly throughout the project updated the parametrisation of the chosen bio-economic models given the newest knowledge about the fisheries in question. Secondly task 2.4 has covered the running of the models, given the scenarios identified in task 2.3, and documentation of the resulting outputs. The following case studies have been analysed (parenthesis displaying the bio-economic model used): The Danish North Sea Demersal fishery (Fishrent) The UK mixed demersal fisheries in the North Sea, West of Scotland and Area 7 (SEAFISH model) The French mixed demersal fishery in the Eastern English Channel (ISIS-Fish) The Spanish mixed demersal fishery in the Bay of Biscay (FLBeia) The Icelandic mixed demersal fishery (Model for various use of unwanted catches) The Spanish demersal fishery in the Western Mediterranean (MEFISTO) The Greek demersal and small-scale fishery in the Thermaikos gulf (MEFISTO) The outcomes of the simulations are mixed and indicate that the economic effects of the LO for affected fishing fleets depends on both the fishery in question, on the management system on which the LO is superimposed, and on applied exemptions and mitigation strategies. A full implementation of the LO with no quota-uplifts and no exemptions or mitigation strategies applied will in the long run lead to on the average (average over all fleet segments considered in a given case study) reduced or at best similar economic outcomes, compared to the situation with no LO, for the considered fisheries. Application of mitigation strategies and exemptions improves this result for most considered cases, but has in few cases been predicted to make the economic situation worse given redistributional effects, i.e. that the applied mitigation strategy or exemption will have further consequences for the stocks and other fleets, and thus indirectly make the economic situation worse for the considered fleet. When individual fleet segments are considered the picture becomes even more complex as it is in most case studies predicted that some fleet segments will profit while others will loose out given the LO, both without and with added exemptions and/or mitigation strategies. Thus, in all it is concluded that the economic effects of the LO for affected fisheries are, according to model predictions, very varied, going from losses to actual gains. And that the effects to a high degree depends on (i) the management system on which the LO is superimposed, and (ii) on which and how exemptions and mitigation strategies are implemented. Finally, it must be emphasized that the work performed in tasks 2.3 and 2.4 has built up a valuable model library that can be used for ongoing assessments of the economic outcomes of introducing exemptions and mitigation strategies in relation to the LO in the case studies covered. Understanding the consequences of various approaches to the implementation of the LO, and possible mitigation strategies, on economic performance of affected fishing fleets (using these models) is of broad interest for fishers, policy makers and stakeholders, as well as for anybody interested in sustainable fisheries and life in the oceans. The Deliverable report consists of two sections. Section 1 presents a synthesis of the work performed in the seven case studies, and as such gives a short introduction to each case study, to the applied models, to the scenarios analysed and a final synthesis and discussion of the results. Section 2 includes individual case study chapters, that present in-depth information about the case study, the applied model, the reasoning behind the chosen scenarios, discussion on interaction with WP3-7, and detailed outline and discussion of the assessment results. Box 1: Highlights from the bio-economic model assessments The in-depth analysis of the effects of the landing obligation on the economy of the case study fishing fleets has been conducted in the project using complex bio-economic models. The results of these simulations indicate: In Denmark, the ITQ management system applied is predicted to mitigate the economic effects of the LO in the long run and use of exemptions and improved selectivity may reduce possible economic losses further. In UK, the LO will mean losses in revenue due to choke in the medium long run after full implementation of the policy in 2019. However, application of various mitigation strategies, including quota adjustments, catch allowances for zero TAC stocks, TAC deletions, vessel movements between metiers, quota swaps (both nationally and internationally) and selectivity measures, all to some degree mitigate these negative economic consequences. In West Mediterranean, a full implementation of the LO will lead to reduced profitability, but other measures such as reduced fishing mortality and improved selectivity, may lead to increased profitability in the long term due to increased SSB and Yield. In E. Mediterranean, a full implementation of the LO and partial implementations with reduced fishing mortality will lead to slightly reduced profitability, but improved selectivity may lead to increased SSB that will in turn increase catches and profitability in the long term. In Bay of Biscay, the Basque trawler fleet is better off with a fully implemented LO than without in terms of Gross value added (remuneration of labour and capital), as long-term gains outweigh short term losses. Inter-species year-to year flexibility and de minimis reduces this result and makes the fishery worse off than without the LO. On the other hand, application of improved selectivity makes the fishery significantly better off than without the LO. In the Eastern English Channel ISIS-Fish runs suggest that full implementation of the LO induces a slight increase in long-run gross revenues at about 2.5% relative to the no-LO case. Introducing de minimis increases this to about 12.5% relative to the no-LO case. However, fleet opportunism, i.e. how flexible the fishers are in their choice of metiers, may affect these results both negatively (low flexibility) and positively (high flexibility). Closures of fishing grounds to protect whiting and sole has a negative effect for the economic outcome but allows delaying TAC exhaustion. For Iceland the model works opposite to the other models in the WP2 modelling, as the baseline is a fishery under LO. This case is used to contrast the results of the other case studies and reflect the possible value of landing UUC. It is found that the combined yearly value of products produced from these UUC is around 12.5 M Euros. Box 2: The Methods/Approaches followed Existing numerical bio-economic models have been applied with focus on assessment of the effects of the LO on the economic performance of European fishing fleets affected by the LO, and to test the economic effects of possible discard mitigation strategies. Analysed scenarios have been designed based on the problems faced, given the LO, by the specific case study and the management system on which the LO is superimposed. These problems may differ depending on whether the case study fishery is managed primarily through quotas or through Minimum Conservation Reference Size (MCRS) regulation. Analysed scenarios have been designed based on current knowledge on how the LO will be implemented and on mitigation strategies expected to be introduced in the given case study. Interaction with Discardless Work Packages 3-7 and implementation of results from these have been performed where possible in the different case study models. Box 3: How these results can be used and by whom Understanding the consequences of various approaches to the implementation of the LO, and possible mitigation strategies, on economic performance of affected fishing fleets (using bio-economic models) is of very broad interest for fishermen, policy makers and stakeholders, as well as for anybody interested in sustainable fisheries and life in the oceans.

This Policy Brief provides an overview of the current status, initial experiences, barriers, and opportunities with regard to applying the LO in mixed demersal fisheries in the North Sea, North Western Waters and South Western Waters, the Mediterranean and the Azores. This area covers the all DiscardLess case studies, including the North Sea/West of Scotland, Celtic Sea, Eastern Channel & Bay of Biscay, the western and eastern Mediterranean, and the Azores. In quota managed fisheries, Mixed demersal fisheries provide the biggest challenge for implementation of the LO due to the difficulty of matching quotas with catches for multiple species which are caught simultaneously but in varying proportions. The policy brief reviews where we are with the LO now and what the main issues are. The main orientation of the policy brief is forward looking: what do stakeholders and researchers consider as the main approaches are to deal with the issues in each region until the next CFP reform? To conclude, we take a longer perspective, providing suggestions for how to implement a workable discard policy with the next reform of the CFP. The Policy Brief is written for policy makers, the fishing industry, NGO’s and citizens with an interest in fisheries management and is based on policy documents, stakeholder interviews, meetings and literature. Box 1: Report Highlights Implementation of the LO is occurring across all DiscardLess case studies with measures such as trials of selective gears, provision of information on implementation requirements and the use of exemptions among the aspects most evident. There is very little evidence to date of changes in discard rates or fishing practices although that is not confirmation that these are not occurring but reflects a lack of data to draw such conclusions at present. Recording of discards under exemptions and unwanted catches remains lower than expected although there is evidence of some increase in these practices in early 2019. It is difficult to assess whether changes in fishing practices to promote selectivity and avoid discards are taking place. Given some delays in sanctioning and gradual uptake of new gears (e.g. for trawlers catching Baltic Cod), recent changes to permitted gears (e.g. new mesh size and TCM requirements in the Celtic Sea) and the upcoming implementation of the new Technical Measures framework some improvements in selectivity and discard rates would be expected. The quality of discard data is not improving due to industry fears about the potential negative impact of providing discard data and subsequent decrease in observer coverage in some Member States. Stakeholders across all backgrounds have expressed concerns about the risks associated with potential rises in fishing mortality. Concerns about efficient and effective monitoring of the LO are increasingly being channeled into calls for electronic monitoring across all fleets or on a risk assessment basis. These calls are particularly strong in some MS such as Denmark. A move towards a Results Based Management approach involving electronic monitoring is being advocated with some industry stakeholders specifying that it would require changes to the LO in order for it to gain industry support. Despite a general negative attitude towards the LO among fishers contributions to the final DiscardLess conference in January 2019 including from fishers outlined both positives, such as the incentivising of change, as well as implementation barriers. These are described in greater detail in Section 8.2 below. Box 2: The methods/approaches followed Interviews with a broad range of stakeholders from Commission level, through national administrators, industry and NGO representatives and individual fishermen. Participation in relevant national, regional and EU meetings. Analysis of relevant policy statements, regulatory documents and academic literature. Box 3: How these results can be used and by who? The policy brief on guidelines for the implementation of the discard policy in European regions is of interest to stakeholders at all levels in EU fisheries as the question of what is actually happening with the LO in other fisheries and regions is asked regularly. Box 4: Policy Recommendations Data shortfalls make it difficult to make a reliable assessment of the extent of LO implementation and it’s impact. Improvements in the following areas of data provision would greatly assist with this assessment process. Recording of discards and unwanted catches at vessel level is poor across all case studies and has been identified by STECF as the most significant problem with monitoring LO implementation. MS will have to develop stronger accounting measures based on last haul analysis if this trend continues. As part of annual reporting on LO implementation MS should provide data not just on selectivity trials undertaken but also on the uptake rates for the use of such gears beyond trial situations. This would allow assessments of changes in selectivity patterns within fisheries to be made. The uptake rates of selective gears could be potentially accelerated by incentivising their use with additional quota. Negative industry attitudes towards the LO across all case studies point to the necessity to find workable discard reduction plans at regional level. The evolving regionalisation process which now incorporates technical measures, multi-annual plans, discard plans and in some cases bycatch reduction plans may provide the necessary framework to overcome industry fears particularly regarding choke closures. Reduced uncertainty regarding the use of measures such as inter-species flexibility and it’s effect on relative stability would assist with mitigating potential chokes. The need for effective monitoring and control of the LO is clear. Calls for the use of electronic monitoring as the solution will also require some degree of industry acceptance in order for this to be viable. Implementing an electronic monitoring approach either on a risk basis or as part of a wider results-based management approach could make this a more feasible option.

Box 1: Report Highlights Proto type light-emitting devices for use on trawl fishing gears have been developed and tested Laboratory experiments investigating the behavioural response of haddock and cod to light of different wavelengths, intensity and strobing rates. Continuous lines of light have been shown to influence the height at which some species enter a trawl gear Illuminated grids in the extension section can be used to direct fish out of the trawl gear or to different codends where further selection can take place. Adding white and purple LED lights into baited traps significantly improved the catch per unit effort of snow crab Box 2: The methods/approaches followed Design and development of physical hardware, software and user interfaces. Laboratory experiments with captive fish. Catch comparison fishing trials. Box 3: How these results can be used and by who? Fishers and net makers – to develop gears that utilise light to select for fish that best match their quota allocation. Fishing gear scientists – to better understand how light can be harnessed to improve trawl gear selectivity and the fishing efficiency of traps. Box 4: Policy recommendations This report demonstrates the potential of using light to improve the selective performance of gears, which if to be fully exploited requires (i) committed research support and (ii) a regulatory framework that is sufficiently flexible to accept readily new technologies and novel gears.

The Black Sea northwestern shelf (NWS) is a shallow eutrophic area in which the seasonal stratification of the water column isolates the bottom waters from the atmosphere. This prevents ventilation from counterbalancing the large consumption of oxygen due to respiration in the bottom waters and in the sediments, and sets the stage for the development of seasonal hypoxia. A three-dimensional (3-D) coupled physical–biogeochemical model is used to investigate the dynamics of bottom hypoxia in the Black Sea NWS, first at seasonal and then at interannual scales (1981–2009), and to differentiate its driving factors (climatic versus eutrophication). Model skills are evaluated by a quantitative comparison of the model results to 14 123 in situ oxygen measurements available in the NOAA World Ocean and the Black Sea Commission databases, using different error metrics. This validation exercise shows that the model is able to represent the seasonal and interannual variability of the oxygen concentration and of the occurrence of hypoxia, as well as the spatial distribution of oxygen-depleted waters. During the period 1981–2009, each year exhibits seasonal bottom hypoxia at the end of summer. This phenomenon essentially covers the northern part of the NWS – which receives large inputs of nutrients from the Danube, Dniester and Dnieper rivers – and extends, during the years of severe hypoxia, towards the Romanian bay of Constanta. An index H which merges the aspects of the spatial and temporal extension of the hypoxic event is proposed to quantify, for each year, the intensity of hypoxia as an environmental stressor. In order to explain the interannual variability of H and to disentangle its drivers, we analyze the long time series of model results by means of a stepwise multiple linear regression. This statistical model gives a general relationship that links the intensity of hypoxia to eutrophication and climate-related variables. A total of 82% of the interannual variability of H is explained by the combination of four predictors: the annual riverine nitrate load (N), the sea surface temperature in the month preceding stratification (Ts), the amount of semi-labile organic matter accumulated in the sediments (C) and the sea surface temperature during late summer (Tf). Partial regression indicates that the climatic impact on hypoxia is almost as important as that of eutrophication. Accumulation of organic matter in the sediments introduces an important inertia in the recovery process after eutrophication, with a typical timescale of 9.3 yr. Seasonal fluctuations and the heterogeneous spatial distribution complicate the monitoring of bottom hypoxia, leading to contradictory conclusions when the interpretation is done from different sets of data. In particular, it appears that the recovery reported in the literature after 1995 was overestimated due to the use of observations concentrated in areas and months not typically affected by hypoxia. This stresses the urgent need for a dedicated monitoring effort in the Black Sea NWS focused on the areas and months concerned by recurrent hypoxic events.

A presente tese de doutoramento tem por objectivo contribuir para o conhecimento geral dos cocolitóforos na transição costeiro-neritico-oceânica, a sua distribuição ao largo de Portugal, e o seu potencial enquanto traçador (paleo)ecológico e (paleo)ceanográfico no contexto de canhões submarinos. Para compreender a relação entre os coccolitóforos e as condições ambientais, os resultados foram interpretados numa perspectiva multidisciplinar, integrados num conjunto significativo de dados relativos às características ecológicas e hidrológicas das massas de água superficiais da margem Portuguesa central (i.e. nutrientes, clorofila, temperatura, salinidade, turbidez, dados de vento e de satélite), e às caracteristicas sedimentológicas dos fundos marinhos (i.e. composição, textura e acumulação sedimentar). As variações ecológicas mais significativas observadas nas comunidades de cocólitoforos ao largo de Portugal ocorreram ao longo do gradiente costa-oceano. Dois grupos taxonómicos principais de comportamento ecológico oposto foram observados na zona fótica, marcando a transição de espécies adaptadas a regimes mais estáveis (K-selected) preferencialmente distribuídas no domínio oceânico, para espécies oportunistas (r-selected) mais frequentes nas regiões neritico-costeiras. Este gradiente também foi observado nas associações de cocólitos preservadas nos sedimentos superficiais do fundo marinho, tanto ao longo dos canhões submarinos como nas suas áreas adjacentes, embora várias diferenças tenham sido reconhecidas entre os dois tipos de ambientes. Na zona fótica, as espécies Emiliania huxleyi e Gephyrocapsa oceanica revelaram um comportamento claramente r-selected, tendo sido as principais responsáveis pelo bloom de cocolitóforos observado ao largo do Cabo Carvoeiro. Este bloom ocorreu em resposta à combinação favorável de descarga fluvial de final de inverno com ventos predominantes de norte sobre a plataforma, e condições de céu limpo. Em apenas alguns dias, as concentrações de cocolitóforos e biomassa de fitoplâncton (Chl-a) mais do que triplicaram, indicando claramente a capacidade destes organismos em tirar partido das condições favoráveis em luz e nutrientes providenciadas pela pluma fluvial superficial. As duas espécies desenvolveram-se em conjunto com outros fitoplânctónicos oportunistas (Chaetoceros s.l., Thalassiosira s.l, Skeletonema s.l.), confirmando o seu papel enquanto espécies r-selected de primeiro estádio da sucessão fitoplanctónica, caracterizadas por terem um potencial de desenvolvimento rápido em ambientes ricos em nutrientes. Coronosphaera mediterranea e Syracolithus dalmaticus também responderam positivamente às condições favoráveis no decorrer do cruzeiro, embora menos notavelmente do que as espécies anteriores. Pelo contrário, os grupos Syracosphaera spp. e Ophiaster spp. revelaram características típicas de espécies K-selected, consistentemente mais abundantes em águas mais oceânicas e menos eutróficas, afastadas da influência da pluma fluvial, ou distribuídas em níveis abaixo da pluma nas regiões mais neritico-costeiras. Gephyrocapsa ericsonii e Gephyrocapsa muellerae dominaram a comunidade de cocolitóforos sob condições de baixa produtividade na plataforma, mas não quando as águas de regiões nerítico-costeiras se tornaram favoráveis ao bloom de espécies oportunistas. No sedimento superficial de fundo, enquanto as espécies C. mediterranea, Helicosphaera carteri e a G. oceanica (e, em menor grau, Coccolithus pelagicus) registaram uma distribuição marcadamente costeira, os cocólitos produzidos pelas espécies Calcidiscus leptoporus, Umbilicosphaera sibogae, Umbellosphaera irregularis e Rhabdosphaera spp. foram observados preferencialmente distribuidos para offshore e para sul, possivelmente indicadoras de uma maior influência da ENACWst na zona mais meridional da area de estudo (i.e. a sul do Esporão da Estremadura). G. muellerae revelou ser, de longe, a espécie mais abundante e amplamente distribuída, embora geralmente mais oceânica, particularmente nas regiões adjacentes aos canhões submarinos. Enquanto certas especies mais robustas (i.e. C. leptoporus, C. pelagicus, H. carteri) tiveram um registo mais relevante no sedimento em comparação com a coluna de água, géneros de morfologia mais frágil e de menores dimensões (i.e. Syracosphaera spp., Ophiaster spp., S. dalmaticus) não foram observadas no sedimento, provavelmente traduzindo os efeitos da dissolução e fragmentação selectiva. No entanto, quando considerando percentagens de espécies de cocólitos de dimensão semelhante (≥3 μm), não foi observada qualquer evidência mais consistente de que tenha havido transporte ou preservação preferencial de especies individuais, confirmando que o signal preservado no sedimento apresenta uma forte componente (paleo)ecológica, e não meramente tafonómica. Em termos de dinâmica de canhão submarino, o Canhão da Nazaré foi observado a ter o efeito de conduta preferencial de águas oceânicas para regiões bastante proximais da plataforma continental Portuguesa, as quais se encontravam empobrecidas em nutrientes em comparação com as massas de água neríticas e costeiras durante o período de final de inverno monitorizado durante o cruzeiro. A ocorrência singular de Discosphaera tubifera e Palusphaera vandelii na cabeceira do canhão, juntamente com C. leptoporus é interpretada enquanto traçadora do deslocamento preferencial de ENACWst intensificado ao longo do troço superior do canhão, durante o inverno. Um “hotspot” de diversidade de cocolitóforos foi observado na coluna de água desta área, incluindo tanto espécies oceânicas-oligotróficas como espécies costeiras oportunistas, tendo sido interpretado enquanto reflexo da capacidade do canhão em promover trocas de massas de água entre regiões neritico-costeiras e regiões mais oceânicas, particularmente durante o inverno. Adicionalmente, a persistente ocorrência de elevadas concentrações de Chl-a à superfície obtidas por imagens de satélite, particularmente entre Março e Outubro (2006-2011), sugerem a cabeceira do Canhão da Nazaré como sendo o sector mais persistentemente produtivo do troço superior-médio do canhão. Percentagens mais elevadas de cocólitos de espécies costeiro-neriticas em sedimentos da parte superior do Canhão da Nazaré corroboram esta hipótese, possivelmente traduzindo a forte proximidade da sua cabeceira à linha de costa, resultando numa maior influência da dinâmica costeira e na sua intensificação na cabeceira e área adjacente (i.e. upwelling, ondas internas), e em condições mais dinâmicas e ricas em nutrientes para as quais as espécies r-selected estão melhor adaptadas. Pelo contrário, percentagens mais elevadas de cocólitos de espécies oceânicas no Canhão de Lisboa-Setúbal parecem traduzir um ambiente em geral mais oceânico-pelágico neste No sedimento superficial de fundo, enquanto as espécies C. mediterranea, Helicosphaera carteri e a G. oceanica (e, em menor grau, Coccolithus pelagicus) registaram uma distribuição marcadamente costeira, os cocólitos produzidos pelas espécies Calcidiscus leptoporus, Umbilicosphaera sibogae, Umbellosphaera irregularis e Rhabdosphaera spp. foram observados preferencialmente distribuidos para offshore e para sul, possivelmente indicadoras de uma maior influência da ENACWst na zona mais meridional da area de estudo (i.e. a sul do Esporão da Estremadura). G. muellerae revelou ser, de longe, a espécie mais abundante e amplamente distribuída, embora geralmente mais oceânica, particularmente nas regiões adjacentes aos canhões submarinos. Enquanto certas especies mais robustas (i.e. C. leptoporus, C. pelagicus, H. carteri) tiveram um registo mais relevante no sedimento em comparação com a coluna de água, géneros de morfologia mais frágil e de menores dimensões (i.e. Syracosphaera spp., Ophiaster spp., S. dalmaticus) não foram observadas no sedimento, provavelmente traduzindo os efeitos da dissolução e fragmentação selectiva. No entanto, quando considerando percentagens de espécies de cocólitos de dimensão semelhante (≥3 μm), não foi observada qualquer evidência mais consistente de que tenha havido transporte ou preservação preferencial de especies individuais, confirmando que o signal preservado no sedimento apresenta uma forte componente (paleo)ecológica, e não meramente tafonómica. Em termos de dinâmica de canhão submarino, o Canhão da Nazaré foi observado a ter o efeito de conduta preferencial de águas oceânicas para regiões bastante proximais da plataforma continental Portuguesa, as quais se encontravam empobrecidas em nutrientes em comparação com as massas de água neríticas e costeiras durante o período de final de inverno monitorizado durante o cruzeiro. A ocorrência singular de Discosphaera tubifera e Palusphaera vandelii na cabeceira do canhão, juntamente com C. leptoporus é interpretada enquanto traçadora do deslocamento preferencial de ENACWst intensificado ao longo do troço superior do canhão, durante o inverno. Um “hotspot” de diversidade de cocolitóforos foi observado na coluna de água desta área, incluindo tanto espécies oceânicas-oligotróficas como espécies costeiras oportunistas, tendo sido interpretado enquanto reflexo da capacidade do canhão em promover trocas de massas de água entre regiões neritico-costeiras e regiões mais oceânicas, particularmente durante o inverno. Adicionalmente, a persistente ocorrência de elevadas concentrações de Chl-a à superfície obtidas por imagens de satélite, particularmente entre Março e Outubro (2006-2011), sugerem a cabeceira do Canhão da Nazaré como sendo o sector mais persistentemente produtivo do troço superior-médio do canhão. Percentagens mais elevadas de cocólitos de espécies costeiro-neriticas em sedimentos da parte superior do Canhão da Nazaré corroboram esta hipótese, possivelmente traduzindo a forte proximidade da sua cabeceira à linha de costa, resultando numa maior influência da dinâmica costeira e na sua intensificação na cabeceira e área adjacente (i.e. upwelling, ondas internas), e em condições mais dinâmicas e ricas em nutrientes para as quais as espécies r-selected estão melhor adaptadas. Pelo contrário, percentagens mais elevadas de cocólitos de espécies oceânicas no Canhão de Lisboa-Setúbal parecem traduzir um ambiente em geral mais oceânico-pelágico neste canhão, resultante da sua maior distância aos efeitos da dinâmica costeira e ausência de transporte sedimentar significativo ao longo do seu talvegue, na actualidade. Uma mistura mais acentuada de cocólitos produzidos pelas duas associações (paleo)ecológicas, i.e. a costeiro-neritica e a oceânica, foi observada nos sedimentos dos canhões, em comparação com as regiões da plataforma e vertente regiões adjacentes aos canhões onde o gradiente (paleo)ecológico costa-oceano é mais distintivo. Esta assinatura nos canhões confirma a capacidade destas estrutura em promover trocas de massas de água costeiras e oceânicas (sinal ecológico), embora o importante papel das ondas internas e dos ocasionais fluxos gravíticos de sedimentos em perturbar e homogeneizar o registo sedimentar (sinal tafonómico) nos canhões deva ser sempre considerado. Ao evitar os problemas estatísticos tipicamente associados às determinações percentuais, a Análise de Dados Composicionais (i.e. a abordagem isometric log-ratio) permitiu validar e confirmar o gradiente ecológico costa-oceano observado nas associações de cocólitos no sedimento. A boa concordância entre os dois métodos sugere que o sinal (paleo)ecológico preservado na cobertura sedimentar da margem Portuguesa central é robusto, mesmo junto à costa e no contexto das condições dinâmicas vigentes nos canhões submarinos. Pelo contrário, tanto as concentrações de cocólitos (nanno/g) como os fluxos (nanno/cm2/yr) revelaram padrões de distribuição espacial onde as relações ecológicas interespécies parecem estar “mascaradas” por factores sedimentares/tafonómicos, particularmente nas zonas costeiras e nos canhões. O aumento de cocólitos para offshore reflecte não só a natureza primordialmente oceânica dos cocolitóforos, mas também a ocorrência de selecção textural, resultando na acumulação preferencial de cocólitos em regiões menos energéticas da vertente continental média e inferior, e em certas zonas dos canhões as quais funcionam como armadilhas morfológicas temporárias de sedimentos. Fluxos mais elevados nos troços superiores dos canhões reflectem o seu papel enquanto depocentros preferenciais de sedimentos finos na plataforma continental, tanto de origem litogénica como biogénica, incluindo cocólitos provenientes de fluxos verticais (produtividade – sinal ecológico) e laterais (resuspensão e advecção – sinal tafonómico). Este estudo ilustra cabalmente a rapidez de resposta dos cocolitóforos a variações meteorológicas e hidrográficas de curto-prazo e ao surgimento de condições ambientais favoráveis na costa Portuguesa, contrariando a noção amplamente aceite de que estes organismos representam um grupo fitoplanctónico calcário uniforme típico de ambientes de baixa turbulência, baixo conteúdo nutritivo e intensa luminosidade. Embora haja ainda muito trabalho a fazer no que respeita ao impacto dos canhões submarinos sobre a dinâmica oceanográfica e fitoplanctónica ao largo de Portugal, as associações de cocólitos preservados no sedimento revelaram-se úteis enquanto traçadores de gradientes (paleo)ecológicos e (paleo)oceanográficos vigentes na margem Portuguesa central. Os resultados confirmam estudos anteriores focados na complexa dinâmica hidro-sedimentar vigente nos canhões submarinos da Nazaré e de Lisboa-Setúbal. This thesis aims to contribute to the knowledge of coccolithophores from coastal-neriticoceanic transitional settings, their distribution offshore central Portugal, and their potential as (paleo)ecological and (paleo)ceanographic proxy in the context of submarine canyons. In order to achieve a good understanding of the relationship of coccolithophores with the environmental setting, results were interpreted on a multidisciplinary basis, integrating a significant data set concerning the hydrological characteristics of surface waters of the central Portuguese margin (i.e. nutrients, chlorophyll, temperature, salinity, turbidity, wind data) and seabed sedimentological characteristics (i.e. sediment bulk composition, particle size and sediment accumulation). The most striking variations in phytoplankton communities off central Portugal occurred along the coastal-oceanic lateral gradient. Two principal groups of taxa of opposite ecological behaviour were observed in the photic layer, with K-selected taxa preferentially distributed in the open ocean, and r-selected taxa preferentially occurring in more coastal-neritic regions. Such gradient was also reflected in coccolith assemblages preserved in surface sediments on the seabed, both along the submarine canyons and on the adjacent shelf and slope areas, although several differences were noticed between the two environments. In the photic layer, Emiliania huxleyi and Gephyrocapsa oceanica exhibited the typical behaviour of r-selected species, being the main responsible for a coccolithophore bloom occurring in the Nazaré Canyon region (off Cape Carvoeiro). This bloom occurred in response to late winter continental runoff combined with northerly winds prevailing over the shelf, under clear sky conditions. Within a few days, coccolithophore cell densities and associated phytoplankton biomass (Chl-a) more than tripled, indicating that phytoplankton was taking profit from favourable nutrient and light conditions provided by the superficial buoyant plume. The two species were developing together with other opportunistic phytoplankton genera (Chaetoceros s.l., Thalassiosira s.l, Skeletonema s.l.), confirming their role as early succession r-selected taxa, capable of rapid growth within nutrient-rich environments. Coronosphaera mediterranea and Syracolithus dalmaticus also responded to the favourable conditions, but less so than E. huxleyi and G. oceanica. On the contrary, Syracosphaera spp. and Ophiaster spp. revealed typical characteristics of K-selected species, being consistently more abundant in more oceanic and less eutrophic waters, away from the influence of river runoff, and extending well below the nutrient-rich surface layer in the more coastal-neritic regions. Gephyrocapsa ericsonii and Gephyrocapsa muellerae dominated the coccolithophore community under steady-state low-productive conditions over the shelf, until shelf and coastal waters became favourable for rselected species to bloom. In the seafloor sediment, coccoliths from C. mediterranea, Helicosphaera carteri and G. oceanica (and to a lesser extent, Coccolithus pelagicus) exhibited a markedly coastal distribution, whereas coccoliths from Calcidiscus leptoporus, Umbilicosphaera sibogae, Umbellosphaera irregularis and Rhabdosphaera spp. were preferentially distributed further offshore and southwards, possibly tracing the preferential onflow of ENACWst into the southern part of the central Portuguese shelf (i.e. south of Estremadura spur). G. muellerae was by far the most abundant and broadly distributed species in the sediment, with highest abundances in the more oceanic areas, particularly outside the canyons. Whereas larger and more robust coccolith species (i.e. C. leptoporus, C. pelagicus, H. carteri) were better represented in the sediment in comparison to the overlying water column, smaller and more delicate species from the genera Syracosphaera spp., Ophiaster spp. and S. dalmaticus were not found in the sediments, most likely due to selective dissolution and breaking. Yet, considering the coccolith species assemblage preserved in the sediment, no consistent evidence for selective transport or preservation of individual taxa in relation to coccolith size was found, strongly suggesting the signal within the sediment is mostly (paleo)ecological rather than merely taphonomical. In terms of canyon dynamics, the Nazaré Canyon was observed to act as a preferential conduit for oceanic waters into very proximal regions of the Portuguese shelf, which were nutrient-depleted in comparison to neritic and coastal water masses during the monitored late winter period. The single occurrence of Discosphaera tubifera and Palusphaera vandelii in this proximal area, together with C. leptoporus, is interpreted as tracing the onflow of ENACWst intensified along the upper canyon during winter. A coccolithophore diversity “hotspot” was noticed in the canyon head, including both oligotrophic-oceanic and opportunistic-coastal taxa, interpreted as reflecting the canyon’s capacity to promote exchange of water masses between neritic-coastal and oceanic regions during winter. In addition, Chl-a time series obtained from satellite data (2006-2011) revealed that the canyon head is often the stage of high productivity between March and October, which makes this region the most persistently productive part of the upper-middle canyon and nearby shelf. Highest percentages of coastal-neritic coccoliths in sediments from the upper Nazaré Canyon support this hypothesis, possibly reflecting the greater proximity of the head of this canyon to the coastline. The stronger influence of coastal dynamics and their intensification in this area (i.e. upwelling, internal waves), gives rise to more dynamic and nutrient-rich conditions to which r-selected coccolithophore species are better adapted. On the contrary, higher percentages of coccoliths from oceanic taxa in the Lisbon-Setúbal Canyon suggest that a generally more oceanic-pelagic environment prevails in this canyon, explained by its greater distance from coastal dynamics and present-day lack of down-canyon sediment transport. Enhanced percentages of G. muellerae in the upper Lisbon-Setúbal Canyon may be indicating preferential onflow of oceanic water masses through the canyon and/or upcanyon transport of resuspended coccoliths in the bottom boundary layer. More pronounced mixing of coccoliths from both coastal-neritic and oceanic coccolith assemblages was observed in sediments from the canyons, in comparison to the canyons adjacent shelf-slope regions where the coast-ocean (paleo)ecological gradient is more distinctive, confirming the capacity of these structures in promoting the exchange between coastal and oceanic water masses (ecological signal). Nevertheless, the role of internal tides and occasional sediment gravity flows in disturbing and homogenizing the sedimentary record within canyons (taphonomical signal) should also be considered. While avoiding the major statistical problems potentially associated with percentages, Compositional Data Analysis involving the use of isometric log-ratios allowed validation of coast-to-ocean ecological trends determined from sediment coccolith percentages. The good agreement between the two methods suggests that the coccolith (paleo)ecological signal preserved in sediments of the central Portuguese margin is robust, even near the coast and in the context of the highly dynamic submarine canyons. On the contrary, both coccolith concentrations (nanno/g) and fluxes (nanno/cm2/yr) showed spatial trends in which ecological inter-relationships appear to be masked by sedimentary/taphonomical factors, especially towards the coast and in the submarine canyons. The general increase of coccoliths further offshore reflects the oceanic nature of coccolithophores, but also physical sorting, resulting in preferential accumulation of coccoliths within finer-grained hemipelagic sediments that accumulate in more calm environments of the middle and lower slope and in certain parts of the canyons acting as temporary sediment morphological traps. Highest coccolith fluxes in the upper canyons reflect their role as preferential depocenters of fine-grained particles both lithogenic and biogenic. Biogenic fine particles include coccoliths from vertical (productivity - ecological signal) and lateral fluxes (resuspension and advection – taphonomical signal). This study strikingly illustrates the rapid response of coccolithophores to short-term meteorological and hydrographic variability creating favourable conditions for growth off central Portugal. These results contradict the accepted notion of coccolithophores being a uniform functional group of calcifying phytoplankton thriving in low-turbulence, low-nutrients and high-light environments. Whereas much work still needs to be done concerning the impact of the canyons on both oceanography and phytoplankton dynamics off central Portugal, coccoliths preserved in the seabed sediment appeared to be useful tracers of the prevailing (paleo)ecological and (paleo)oceanographic trends. The results support previous studies focused on the complex hydro-sedimentary dynamics prevailing in the Nazaré and Lisbon-Setúbal canyons. Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (FCT, SFRH/BD/41330/2007, projeto Cd Tox-CoN PTDC/MAR/102800/2008); projetos, EUROSTRATAFORM, HERMES (GOCE-CT-2005-511234),“Lead in Canyons” e “Pacemaker” Tese de doutoramento, Geologia (Paleontologia e Estatigrafia), Universidade de Lisboa, Faculdade de Ciências, 2013

This Policy Brief provides an overview of the current status, initial experiences, barriers, and opportunities with regard to applying the LO in mixed demersal fisheries in the North Sea, North Western Waters and South Western Waters. This area covers the DiscardLess case studies of the North Sea/West of Scotland, Celtic Sea, Eastern Channel & Bay of Biscay. Mixed demersal fisheries provide the biggest challenge for implementation of the LO due to the difficulty of matching quotas with catches for multiple species which are caught simultaneously but in varying proportions. The Policy Brief is written for policy makers, the fishing industry, NGO’s and citizens with an interest in fisheries management and is based on policy documents, stakeholder interviews, meetings and literature. Box 1: Report Highlights The overwhelming issue for industry stakeholders in mixed demersal fisheries remains the choke problem. Despite intense efforts to come up with solutions involving national and transnational workshops a significant number of fisheries will have residual choke problems even after all available mitigation measures are applied. The assessment of which mitigation measures can have the greatest effect and how is slowly moving from a qualitative to a quantitative approach. This issue is dealt with in further detail in D4.4. Quota distribution is a significant issue for choke scenarios there may be enough quota but it may not be available to those who need it most. Accordingly flexibility in quota allocation and swopping is key. Significant changes in management in order to deal with residual chokes, for example by removing a stock from the TAC process, may only be permitted when all other available measures under Article 15 are applied. In 2016 only 1 member state reported a choke closure, reflecting that a very significant gap in the implementation of the LO remains For environmental NGOs an increasingly important issue is the lack of recording of unwanted catches and controls. Some NGOs cite the example of the Baltic as a cautionary tale, as they claim discard rates there have increased since the implementation of the LO. The ACs generally favour a risk based approach leading to stronger controls for identified high risk vessels. The issue of how to deal with catches below MCRS remains a hypothetical as very small quantities of unwanted catches have been landed across these fisheries. Industry fears about the potential negative impact of providing discard data and subsequent decrease in observer coverage in some Member States is an issue for science. Box 2: The methods/approaches followed Interviews with a broad range of stakeholders from Commission level, through national administrators, industry and NGO representatives and individual fishermen. Attendance at relevant national, regional and EU meetings. Analysis of relevant policy statements, regulatory documents and academic literature. Review of first 2 years of the LO in demersal fisheries and guidelines for improved implementation over coming years. Box 3: How these results can be used and by who? The policy brief on experiences with the LO in mixed demersal fisheries is of interest to stakeholders at all levels in EU fisheries as the question of what is actually happening with the LO in other fisheries and regions is asked regularly. The experiences of the first 2 years reported in the policy brief were taken from interviews from fishermen, industry reps, control officers, NGOs and EU commission staff. In addition the guidelines and future implications outlined in the policy brief are relevant to policy makers and higher level stakeholders as they seek to build on previous successes and and avoid past mistakes with the broadening of the LO to other fisheries. The policy briefs will be presented for selected target audiences and are available on the project website. Box 4: Policy Recommendations A major policy challenge is to catalyse action at the management level (see also D4.4). A top-down process could be used whereby failure to implement measures available in Article 15 would preclude the MS from the potential use of other measures such as the removal of choke problem stocks from the TAC system. This process could also link applied measures to discard reduction targets, as MSs currently are not required to demonstrate such reductions. This top-down process must be matched by a bottom-up process, realigning incentives for fishers to provide data in support of discard mitigation. Without this the quality of scientific data will be negatively effected and implementation will be overly reliant on control and enforcement rather than collaboration. The issue of overcoming short-term losses without going out of business is key for fishers. Some NGOs have proposed specific cases where industry should only receive support if they have implemented effective selectivity measures. A more general application of this approach could incentivise progress while reducing industry fears of bankruptcies. The first amendment to the LO was made in recognition of the fact that it is taking longer to develop multi-year management plans than originally envisaged. Similarly, it may be recognised that LO implementation takes longer than originally hoped for. This amendment also shows that difficulties with making changes to Article 15 may be more political than legal in nature.

The overall objective was to identify innovative seafood products with potential for different national markets. “Innovative products” refer to new products as well as popular products in specific countries with low demand in other countries. With this in mind the Icelandic Arctic char is of interest as a niche product in the European market which could be sold at a higher price than other salmonids species. The wild Arctic char is known as traditional fish product in Iceland, which has been available especially in the countryside as a seasonal product. Since 1987, farming of the species in land based flow through systems, has gradually increased. The annual production volume of Arctic char is currently about 3.500 tons, which is mainly exported to US and Europe, while less than 4% of the total volume is sold in the domestic market. Although the farmed Arctic char is a popular menu item in catering and restaurants as well as being available in fish stores in Iceland, the local market is small and has not received attention as a profitable market for the main producing companies in Iceland. However, with increasing amount of tourists in Iceland there are initiatives and efforts among local chefs to promote Arctic char as part of Icelandic culinary menu.

The documents in these folders represent part of the qualitative data collection documentation. Research has been performed in Flanders (Belgium) in 2016 and 2017. Involved stakehodlers were flemish sugar beet farmers, processors as well as other value chain members. Though, the main stakeholders involved were farmers. The raw data cannot be published. Anonymized interview transcripts and focus group transcripts exist. However, as indicated in the informed consent, farmers did not agree to the raw data being published. The codes that resulted from data analysis are in this folder. Interview questions differed slightly from farmer to farmer as follow up questions may have been posed if needed. First interviews were performed, then focus groups were conducted and finally a workshop was organized. The qualitative reserach followed the research strategy and plan determined by the SUFISA project. On the project webpage (https://www.sufisa.eu/) more information can be found.