Even when volcanoes are not erupting ash or lava, their persistent volcanic emissions (PVE) can be highly hazardous. PVE are extremely rich in acids (for example sulphur dioxide gas), fine particulate matter (PM2.5) and heavy metals, presenting a serious and persistent source of air pollution. UNRESP foundation phase will be based at Masaya volcano in Nicaragua, one of the biggest volcanic polluters in the world, which has been causing severe air pollution in populated areas for many centuries. UNRESP seeks to reduce the impact of Masaya's PVE on the local populations by introducing early warning and mitigation procedures for episodes when volcanic air pollution reaches hazardous levels. Over 30 countries on the Official Development Assistance list (ODA) may be suffering from PVE, yet, this hazard remains loverlooked by the Disaster Risk Reduction community in developing countries of the Global South. Most of the existing knowledge and best practices on dealing with PVEC originates from locations in the Global North, such as Hawaii, Italy and Japan, leaving major gaps in their institutional applications to Global South contexts. While Masaya will be used as a pilot location, the results will be applicable to other areas in Nicaragua impacted by PVE, and translatable to other countries. We are aiming to build early-warning procedures which are highly applicable and easily accessible to the populations at risk, and to improve the communication between scientists, decision makers and the local communities. We will apply a stakeholder-first approach, which enables and encourages the local communities to be involved in the building of the resilience strategies. UNRESP combines the expertise of a large and highly interdisciplinary group of UK and Nicaraguan researchers across volcanology, environmental sciences, history, human geography, sociology and anthropology. We have two volcano observatories as project partners, including Nicaragua's INETER. UNRESP also involves project partners representing the remit of public health to which our findings will be highly relevant. The project's objectives will be met through collection of new data and a review of pre-existing information, as well as through discussions and active collaboration at Nicaragua-based workshops and outreach activities.

In this project, we will use a newly developed system to tackle the air pollution hazard in Nicaragua. Air pollution is the largest environmental root of ill-health and premature loss of life. Each year it causes over 4 million deaths, with 90% of these in developing countries. Air pollution stems both from anthropogenic activities as well as a variety of natural sources. In the developing countries air pollution is generally poorly understood due to lack of scientific research and routine monitoring. Furthermore, while public air quality (AQ) alerts and advisories are legally mandated in the UK and other high-income countries, they are almost non-existent in the poorest parts of the world. The World Health Organisation therefore recommends that monitoring of air pollution is improved in the developing countries to better understand the impact it has on health, and to assist local authorities in establishing plans for improving AQ. In a previous research project, our team looked at a poorly understood source of air pollution from persistently active volcanoes, using Masaya volcano in Nicaragua as a case study. Volcanic air pollution (VAP) is a chronic natural hazard potentially present in over 30 countries on the Official Development Assistance list but absent from their mitigation strategies. Almost nothing is known about the interaction of VAP with anthropogenic air pollution and the resulting impacts on health and the environment. Our previous project developed and trialled a system for monitoring VAP and assessed ways of making the system suitable for operational use. This new system can be used for monitoring AQ both from volcanoes and other sources, including anthropogenic activities such as traffic. We will install a network of permanent AQ stations that will stream data in real-time to the Nicaraguan natural hazards observatory. We will also introduce techniques and tools for visualising and interpret the data. Nicaragua already has a well-developed system for monitoring and mitigating a number of other natural hazards, such as earthquakes, hurricanes and tsunami. The AQ network will be integrated with the pre-existing system and used alongside monitoring of other hazards. We will be collaborating with the Nicaraguan natural hazards observatory, the civil protection, and multiple other local and international end-users. The AQ data will be used to make forecasts and issue public advisories for unhealthy air pollution levels. Public advisories allow the decision makers and the public to take measures to protect the most vulnerable persons, such as people with respiratory and heart conditions, children and the elderly. AQ monitoring also increases the awareness of decision makers and the public on air pollution issues, and is therefore an important initial step towards improving AQ in the country. We will be working closely with the local communities to ensure that the public advisories are applicable, easily understandable, and useful for their lifestyle. At the end of the project, the local end-users, such as the natural hazards observatory, will have the necessary capability and knowledge to run the AQ network and expand it as needed.

The 2010 Eyjafjallajökull and 2011 Grimsvötn eruptions in Iceland were stark reminders that society is increasingly vulnerable to volcanic hazards. Since 2012, volcanic eruptions are listed in the UK National Risk Register for Civil Emergencies, recognising the high potential for societal disruption and economic loss. Volcano observatories and regulatory bodies, including the nine Volcanic Ash Advisory Centres (VAACs), use a variety of tools and data to mitigate the impacts of eruptions, and ensure aviation safety. Some of the most important tools are atmospheric models that simulate the atmospheric transport and removal of volcanic plume constituents and form the backbone of the regulatory response. The accuracy of these model predictions relies on: i) accurate input data, mainly derived from ground-based measurements and satellites; ii) the accuracy of the model representation of volcanic plume transport and plume processes. The overarching aims of V-PLUS are to transform our understanding of volcanic plumes and deliver methods and tools that enhance monitoring and forecasting capabilities in the UK and beyond. Our project partners and subcontractor include the Icelandic Met Office, the UK Met Office and Etna volcano observatory, which ensures that our new research breakthroughs will be used operationally by VAACs and volcano observatories. This will enhance our capabilities to mitigate the economic and societal hazards posed by volcanic eruptions. To achieve our aims, V-PLUS will exploit data from a recently launched satellite sensor called TROPOspheric Monitoring Instrument (TROPOMI). The exceptional spectral and spatial resolution of TROPOMI, 12 times better than the previous generation of instruments, is for the first time comparable to ground-based measurements, and will be a game-changer in volcanology, providing an unprecedented opportunity to characterise and track volcanic plumes. V-PLUS will combine this new data with ground-based and other satellite data, as well as atmospheric modelling to study volcanic plumes with unprecedented fidelity. To improve our ability to measure volcanic ash from satellite imagery we will conduct experiments on volcanoes, directly sampling volcanic ash during volcanic explosions using unmanned aerial vehicles, and test numerical models of volcanic activity. Aside from volcanic ash hazards, toxic volcanic sulphur species can degrade air quality, negatively affect human health, and potentially increase the cost of ownership of aircraft engines due to an increase in maintenance cycles. However, there is at present extremely limited knowledge of exposure thresholds and durations at which negative human health effects occur and the functioning of aircraft engines is compromised. While none of the VAACs are currently required to forecast the dispersion of volcanic sulphur, there is increasing recognition of the potential hazards from volcanic gases and their chemical conversion products. Thus, the requirement for VAACs could change in future. The chemical evolution of gases and aerosol particles controls the health and climatic impact of eruptions, and we will study this chemical evolution through experiments in accessible volcanic gas plumes. In summary, the new atmospheric models and tools created by the V-PLUS will be rigorously tested using case study eruptions and translated into tools for direct use by VAACs and volcano observatories. Therefore, the V-PLUS project will have societal and economic benefits primarily through creating enhanced national and international capability to predict the dispersion of volcanic ash and gas plumes including their impacts on air quality, human health, climate and aviation.